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The TL;DR

This paper mainly focused on a pain disorder called interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS). Patients who have this disorder often also experience irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). The group that authored this paper found that this was due to a mast cell-sensory neuron circuit that both initiates inflammation in the bladder and then propagates this sensitivity to the colon.

Let’s break this down

Cross-talk between the bladder and colon

Both of these organs are mainly responsible for removing waste from our bodies, which requires them to sense a variety of immunological and mechanical cues and respond to them. When these conditions change, in the case of inflammation in the bladder for IC/BPS patients, pain occurs. Many of these patients also experience pain and discomfort in the colon, as IBP is comorbid in up to 75% of patients with IC/BPS.

This study found that there is a set of shared neurons between these two organs. Not only that, but upon stimulating infection in the bladder, there was also inflammation in the colon. This may explain why other pathologies drive multiorgan visceral pain syndromes, as well as why visceral pain is so difficult to localize.

Mast Cells

Mast cells are a subset of immune cells that mainly localize to barrier surfaces that are exposed to internal and external pathogens, such as the skin, GI tract, and respiratory system. The antibody IgE (the antibody responsible for allergic reactions) acts on these cells and leads to symptoms such as itching. This paper showed that Mast cells, specifically those expressing the protein MRGPRX2, interact with interorgan neurons to propagate pain from the bladder to the colon.

Think of it like one of those DIY phones that are really two cups connected by a string: the mast cells transmit the signal/ pain from the bladder to the colon, or the cups, via interorgan neurons, which act like the string.

So, why do we care about this?

Historically, cross-talk between organs has been attributed to the circulation of hormones or other immune factors through our blood. This paper adds to the idea that organs communicate humoraly by establishing that there can be a physical connection (via neurons) as well. This observation provides an alternative way to treat these pain disorders, as there is potential to target the subset of mast cells that was described above.

This was an extremely crude summary of the paper- if you are interested in diving deeper, check out the paper here! Feel free to leave a comment with your thoughts below!

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Hi, I’m Isabella!

I’m a Ph.D. student passionate about science communication and mentoring younger scientists. I post on My Ph.Diary. on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, sharing my lab experiences, advice on navigating research, and any biological topics that pique my curiosity. Subscribe below to stay updated!

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The members of the innate immune response are the OG islanders on “Love Island”. Most of those bombshells who come in have little chance at really joining the squad. The OGs have been around since the show started, aka your whole life, so they’re the first to respond to the drama since they’ve been conditioned to stick together and fight against anyone who tries to stir the pot. Biologically, cells such as macrophages, monocytes, and neutrophils come to the rescue, initially fighting off pathogens through mechanisms like phagocytosis, inflammation, and pathogen destruction.

So a hot new bombshell entered the villa, and the OGs ran to the scene to check things out (and maybe even scared them away). The word begins to spread with the help of the dendritic cells. The dendritic cells are the ones who really get things going. They spread the gossip to the rest of the islanders in the villa - the adaptive immune system, which will take action a bit later. In our bodies, dendritic cells present the antigen to the T cells, which will further address the drama in the villa.

T cells will respond to the drama in the villa in a few ways. Cytotoxic T cells try to squash the drama at its source, as they attempt to kill anything foreign. Think of this as face-to-face combat; they might go up to the drama-starting bomb shell and just simply punch them in the face or something (lol). Helper T cells will signal to the B cells (which we will talk about next). Think of this communication as another layer to whatever game of telephone is happening in the villa as the drama spreads. Not only do they activate B cells, but they signal other cells, such as the OG islanders we mentioned before, to continue trying to squash whatever drama is happening. Finally, adaptive T cells are the ones that try to clean up this whole mess. They do the opposite of the immune response to help the body recover. Think of them as a friend who is always trying to keep people together in the midst of chaos.

The B cells are a completely different beast. Rather than attacking the drama themselves, they send out signals to do it for them. B cells do the same thing in our body by secreting antibodies, which will target the pathogen or the disease. The islanders of “Love Island “didn’t have phones or social media, but the producers did! So, think of the B cells as the people behind the scenes, attacking the bombshell by sending a text to the group, sending them on a date, or announcing a recoupling. This response is also known as the humoral response.

It’s important to note that these B and T cells are specific to the antigen at hand. If we call back to our “Love Island” metaphor, imagine that these B and T cells specifically have beef with just this one bombshell. If a different one walked into the villa, a different population of B and T cells would become active. This is because these cells have very specific antibodies and receptors, allowing them to be selective for a specific antigen.

After the beef is squashed and everyone in the villa makes up, memory B and T cells stick around. These guys never forget what happened and keep all the receipts, so when another pesky bombshell enters the villa, the islanders can quickly and effectively respond. Fun fact! This is why vaccines are so good at what they do. After teaching the immune system how to respond to an antigen, your body is ready to fight it when you are exposed later on.

Keep in mind- this is an incredibly simplified version of the immune response, and I only really addressed *some* of the key players. There are so many layers to this story that I will hopefully share in later posts!

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Hi, I’m Isabella!

I’m a Ph.D. student passionate about science communication and mentoring younger scientists. I post on My Ph.Diary. on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, sharing my lab experiences, advice on navigating research, and any biological topics that pique my curiosity. Subscribe below to stay updated!

Now I’ll be honest, these classes are hard. You’re meant to be sweaty, feel your heart beating in your chest, and maybe even feel a little wobbly here and there. But today, something that my teacher said in class struck me. She mentioned that these feelings of anxiety are normal, and that the blend of putting your body under stress with moments in savasana, or rest, is what gives our body and mind all of the benefits of this style of yoga.

So, the scientist in me just had to know exactly what happens in my body when I go to yoga.

The TLDR:

Hot 26 has all sorts of positive impacts on our bodies. While there aren’t many controlled studies, some have shown that this style of yoga improves range of motion, balance, strength, cardiovascular function, and pulmonary function. However, the anxiety-releasing effects come from toggling the switch between our parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems.

Fight or Flight and the HPA Axis

When we experience stress, for example, the difficulty of the 26 poses in a Hot 26 class, we have two responses. The first is from our sympathetic nervous system. This “fight or flight response” causes an increase in heart rate, blood pressure, and sweating. A few seconds later, the HPA axis, or the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, kicks in. Stress signals play a game of telephone, transmitting signals to our hippocampus, then pituitary, and then adrenal glands in that order before glucocorticoids bind to their receptors. This binding activates FKBP51, which further regulates the stress response and metabolic responses. This allows the body to react to stress long-term, and is the result of the release of various hormones that increase production of cortisol, a steroid produced in the adrenal glands, which regulates many bodily functions.

Rest and recovery

The parasympathic nervous system does the opposite. It is responsible for rest and recovery, and often results in the release of digestive enzymes, a decrease in heart rate, and the relaxation of muscles. This system is not composed of glands, but rather long fibers that start in the brain and connect to various parts of the body. Receptors from this system inhibit sympathetic nervous system action, keeping the body regulated in times of stress. While this system can be viewed as the “opposite” of the sympathetic nervous system, it does have some independent functions. Further, this response is much slower than its counterpart.

So how does this come to life on your yoga mat?

During a Hot 26 class, you alternate between periods of stress and hard work and rest in a pose called savasana, where your body is relaxed, lying on the ground. This causes the body to shift between activating the sympathetic nervous system, or our fight or flight response, and the parasympathetic nervous system, where we can rest and recover. This reduces the activation of the HPA axis, which increases the production of cortisol, our body’s stress hormone, as well as the inflammatory response that comes with this. Thus, the blend of physical activity with a present mind, and the combination of breath and movement that is highly encouraged in this practice, leads to reduced stress even after you leave the studio!

I hope you enjoyed this post! As always, I’d love to hear your thoughts in the comment section below <3

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Hi, I’m Isabella!

I’m a Ph.D. student passionate about science communication and mentoring younger scientists. I post on My Ph.Diary. on Sundays, Wednesdays, and Fridays, sharing my lab experiences, advice on navigating research, and any biological topics that pique my curiosity. Subscribe below to stay updated!

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To make a long story short:

Wisdom teeth are what are known as vestigial structures, or anatomical structures that are believed to have once had significance in our ancestors, but no longer do. Think of these structures as that one character in your favorite TV show that doesn’t add to the plot, but also doesn’t make the show any worse to watch. Essentially, we’re talking about evolution’s side characters.

Vestigiality is not just seen in our teeth, but in other parts of the body, such as the appendix, the tailbone, and the muscles that used to be able to move our ears.

To make a long story long:

To understand why we have vestigial structures, we will first dive into the world of evolution and natural selection. Natural selection drives evolution and is described as the differential survival and reproduction of individuals with varying phenotypes. There were a lot of buzzwords in there, so let’s break it down.

Our DNA produces different phenotypes, or physical traits. For example, there are two bunnies in the wild, let’s name them Bugs and Lola. Bugs has a gene that gives him white fur, while Lola has a gene that gives her brown fur.

Whether or not a trait is advantageous is dependent on whether or not an individual can do two things: a) survive long enough so that they reach adulthood, and b) reproduce, thus passing on their genes to their offspring.

Now you may be thinking, how can fur color be advantageous or disadvantageous? Let’s add another layer to the story. Say, there’s a blizzard. The entire forest where our furry friends live is now frosty white. The bunnies now need to be able to hide from hungry predators. This task will be significantly easier for Bugs, who can blend in with his surroundings, allowing him to survive and reproduce. Lola, on the other hand…

Now that we know a bit about natural selection, let’s get to the punchline: vestigiality. Vestigiality is a product of evolution, occurring when a structure or organ is placed under new selective pressures. There is no longer a positive or negative selective pressure, meaning it is neither advantageous nor disadvantageous to have the trait. This prevents the structure from being phased out, allowing it to remain.

Let’s apply this to our wisdom teeth. Over time, the wisdom teeth are no longer advantageous for survival. This is due to a change in diet. As food began to be cooked, the teeth, which helped grind this previously tough and raw food, were no longer useful. Additionally, having wisdom teeth was not a disadvantage (although they could be annoying, which is why we remove them). So in terms of evolution, they get to stick around.

There you have it! You can thank vestigiality for a week of eating ice cream and mashed potatoes!

I hope you enjoyed this quick crash course on evolution, natural selection, and vestigial structures! I’d love to hear your thoughts in the comments section- let’s keep the conversation going.

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5 MORE Fun Facts here!

1. Limb by limb: rebuilding what is lost

What do starfish, salamanders, and zebrafish have in common? All three can regenerate their limbs! This superpower allows these animals to seamlessly recover from such injuries, as oftentimes regenerated limbs have completely restored function and appearance. There isn’t even scarring! This happens in a few steps. First, upon injury, gene expression in these animals quickly changes, resulting in the production of proteins that will aid with limb growth. Then, the amputated area is covered with a wound epidermis. This group of differentiated cells, meaning cells that have already determined their state, then dedifferentiate, forming blastema cells. These cells can then divide and form the structures needed for a functioning limb, such as new bone and muscle. In many contexts, when cells are differentiated, they are in their final form, which makes this process an extremely interesting superpower that these organisms have. Scientists use zebrafish and axolotls as model organisms to study regeneration with the hopes of developing therapies for patients.

2. To bee or not to bee: how pollinators see

Bees have the vital tasks of pollinating many of the crops that fill our dinner plates. But how do they navigate and find the flowers that need them to spread their pollen? Bee’s eyes have the power to see UV. This allows them to recognize patterns on the flowers that they pollinate, leading them to the right spot. Humans and bees are similar in the sense that both of our eyes are trichromatic, meaning we see three different colors. We see combinations of red, blue, and green, while bees see ultraviolet light, blue, and green. This allows bees to see colors and patterns on flowers that humans can’t. Additionally, the ability to quickly see iridescence on flowers will enable them to identify which ones have sugary, sweet nectar available. This superpower is even enhanced when flying, as bees can recognize different flowers even when moving at fast rates!

3. Magnets, the sun, the stars, oh my!

Some species of birds migrate across the entire globe multiple times throughout their lifetime. It seems as if they always know the right way to go. Sure, part of this may be due to instinct, but birds have serious navigation skills, making use of the sun, the stars, and even Earth’s magnetic field! The sun rises in the east, and sets in the west- birds can navigate by using the sun and the way its position changes throughout the day. Further, this form of navigation is linked to the birds’ circadian rhythms. Nighttime migrators, therefore, rely on the stars as their roadmap. You may be visualizing one of those star maps, showing where the different constellations are. However, it is not the orientation of the stars that provides direction for birds, but the way they move! Lastly, some birds use the magnetic fields of the Earth to navigate. Rather than being able to tell the difference between poles, the birds sense the direction of the force of lines of magnitude. This also allows them to detect how close they are to the dip of the Earth, which further helps them navigate!

4. Hiding its true colors

Camouflage is a trait that evolved over time so that prey can hide from their predators by blending in with their surroundings. Some animals naturally have coloring that blends in with their surroundings, resulting from natural selection, while others can change their pigment depending on their environment. Many animals have cells called chromatophores, which are deep beneath their skin and contain a single pigment. These cells are surrounded by muscle that expands and contracts, allowing the animals to change the overall color of their body. The environment isn’t the only thing that can cause an animal to change colors. For example, chameleons can change their pigmentation based on their mood, and nudibranchs can change their color based on changes to their diet.

5. Anti-cancer powers

One of the main reasons cancer occurs is due to age. So what about the animals that live even longer than humans? One answer is a gene called p53. P53 is a protein that helps humans, and many other animals, repair their damaged DNA (damaged DNA often causes cancer). While humans have one copy of this gene, with two alleles, Elephants have 20 copies, producing 40 different proteins! This increase in the number of copies does two things. First, in the case that one copy of p53 is mutated, the elephant has 19 more copies that are functional, meaning that mutations will have a lesser effect on its ability to repair DNA. Further, having extra copies of p53 ensures that damaged cells are quickly and efficiently repaired, reducing the risk of cancer. Many cancer researchers are taking inspiration from these gentile giants to see how we can use this knowledge to enhance cancer treatment for humans!

I hope you all enjoyed this edition of 5 random biology facts you should read more about! Feel free to share your thoughts, comments, or any cool ecoevo-related facts in the comments section!

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Many people are shocked by my combination of majors, and often see the arts and sciences as incompatible. With one field being mathematical, and one being more subjective, I agree, it can be difficult. However, at our core, we are all human. Understanding the human experience allows scientists and doctors to serve their communities better. Whether it be developing a drug or treating a patient, our services have to be accessible to the general public. Thus, the field of Medical Humanities has found its place in undergraduate and medical school classrooms. This field is incredibly interdisciplinary and is defined by studying medicine through a humanistic lens.

Although I am not a medical student, engaging with the Medical Humanities made me a better scientist. I learned that when treating a patient, rather than seeing them as simply their condition, there has to be an understanding of their culture and background. This holistic view of medicine is important when developing treatments that may one day reach the clinic. Further, I learned the importance of making scientific information accessible. We all come from different backgrounds, so often when sharing research, we have to meet our audience where they are. This can be done through the use of metaphor or imagery that can be relatable to others (all of which are literary techniques I developed in my English classes).

Even large medical institutions are engaging with the Medical Humanities. For example, NYU Langone has a Division of Medical Humanities, which aims to address issues in healthcare through the lens of literature, history, philosophy, and the arts.

What can this study accomplish?

A study of medical humanities can impact almost anyone. Whether you are a doctor or a patient, engaging with medicine in this way can be therapeutic, while also promoting greater empathy and understanding.

For Patients and Families:

Writing is therapeutic and can help anyone work through difficult times. Some patients or family members may write about their experience in journal entries or poems, while others express how they feel through art or music if they are not drawn to pen and paper.

Hovey, R. B., Khayat, V. C., & Feig, E. (2018). Cathartic poetry: healing through narrative. The Permanente Journal, 22, 17-196.

This article by Hovey et al. details the effects of writing and reading poetry on patients with chronic illness. The authors specifically speak about the “Cathartic Poem,” which is an “attempt at self-healing through self-empathy.” This form of poetry makes sense of chaotic thinking and restores balance and wholeness. When patients begin to learn about their pain, they can then explore ways to manage it and think beyond it.

For Physicians:

Medical Humanities can also be beneficial to practicing physicians and student doctors. First, writing about experiences in the hospital setting can allow doctors to better process their emotions. Further, engaging with the humanities can help doctors better understand and empathize with the experiences of their patients.

Dolan, B. (2015). Humanitas: Readings in the development of the medical humanities.

The book Humanitas: Readings in the development of medical humanities details the story of Dr. Rita Charon, who noticed that she often had difficulty fully understanding the emotional experiences of her patients. This prompted her to study literature at Columbia University. She states, “I realized that the narrative skills I was learning in my English studies made me a better doctor,” as Charon was now able to understand the complicated narratives that her patients were sharing with her.

The study of medical humanities is also beneficial to medical students.

Mangione, S., Chakraborti, C., Staltari, G., Harrison, R., Tunkel, A. R., Liou, K. T., ... & Kahn, M. J. (2018). Medical students’ exposure to the humanities correlates with positive personal qualities and reduced burnout: a multi-institutional US survey. Journal of general internal medicine, 33(5), 628-634.

The above article illustrates that exposure to the humanities was a negative predictor of burnout in students and a positive predictor of openness, tolerance, and empathy. This suggests that engagement in the arts is beneficial to the students themselves, while also enhancing the student-doctors’ interactions with their patients.

How can I engage with the study of Medical Humanities?

One way you can engage with Medical Humanities is to write about your own experiences. In this practice, there is no right or wrong. Picking up a pen and paper, an instrument, or a paintbrush, and engaging with an experience in health and medicine in your own way is a way to learn about the Medical Humanities. You can keep a journal or sketchbook, or submit to a local or student-run journal if you choose to share your work.

If creating isn’t what you're up for, you can also read books that are in the field of Medical Humanities.

1. When Breath Becomes Air: When Breath Becomes Air is a non-fiction autobiographical book written by American neurosurgeon Paul Kalanithi. It is a memoir about his life and battling stage IV metastatic lung cancer.

   My thoughts: This book is incredibly moving and shares a unique perspective on medicine. The reversal of roles from caregiver to patient is incredibly moving and highlights the search for the meaning of life and how this can change over time.

2. The Emperor of All Maladies: A Biography of Cancer: The book weaves together Mukherjee's experiences as a hematology/oncology fellow at Massachusetts General Hospital, as well as the history of cancer treatment and research

   My thoughts: This book is a good recommendation for someone looking to learn about the experience of doctors, while also learning about the history of cancer, a disease that can impact almost anyone in some way, whether directly or indirectly.

3. The Body Keeps the Score: Brain, Mind, and Body in the Healing of Trauma: The book describes van der Kolk's research and experiences on how people are affected by traumatic stress, including its effects on the mind and body.

   My thoughts: Also, an incredibly impactful book, detailing the biology of traumatic stress. This book will be of special interest to those who are interested in the relationship between trauma and neuroscience.

In Conclusion

If you are looking to engage with the study of medicine, give learning about the Medical Humanities a try. This area of study blends multiple fields, so there is truly something to interest everyone.

As always, I’d love for you all to keep the conversation in the comments, and thank you for reading!

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The Vault

A hot new bombshell enters the villa… aka the Vault has become the cell’s newest organelle.

This large and numerous organelle is found in many organisms, including humans, yet they are so poorly understood. Larger than a ribosome, at 70 nm long, these organelles are fairly simple for their size, containing only three proteins. Further, at an estimated 10,000 vaults per cell, there are up to 160 QUADRILLION vaults in our bodies.

So what makes the vault so mysterious?

First, they are difficult to study. Without being found in conventional models like Drosophila, and the ability to easily stain and differentiate from other elements of the cell, there is little that can be known about this organelle other than the fact that it is probably essential to the cell in some way. Its initial isolation was done by mistake. A “happy accident,” as Bob Ross would say.

Endosymbiosis

The mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell, but before that, it was riding solo.

Mitochondria are the batteries that keep our cells moving. They produce ATP, a source of energy that our cells use for all sorts of processes. However, cells didn’t always have them.

Eukaryotic cells are thought to have developed as a result of multiple simpler cells living together in cooperative relationships. Think of it like a neighborhood, maybe one house is baking a pie for its neighbors, while the people next door shovel their snow in the winter. Endosymbiotic theory suggests that early Eukaryotic cells engulfed their mitochondria neighbors at some point. Rather than being broken down, the mitochondria thrived inside the cell, now acting as a tenant rather than a neighbor.

Retrotransposons

The nomads of the genome, retrotransposons, are units of DNA that are able to move around the genome. These units are widespread in Eukaryotes. For example, 50% of the DNA in maize is made up of retrotransposons.

, how does this work? Retrotransposons are copied into RNA. Following this, they can use reverse transcriptase to be copied back into DNA and inserted into a different region of the genome. This allows them to do a lot of things. For example, these genetic nomads can drive evolution by disrupting genes or altering their expression, or can be used to regulate pre-existing genes.

Genetic Drift and Shift

Remember your doctor saying that you should get that flu shot every year? That’s because genetic drift and genetic shift allow the influenza virus to gradually change each year.

Genetic Drift is when a virus’s genetic makeup gradually changes through tiny point mutations. This often causes small changes in the surface proteins of the virus, which become unrecognizable to our immune system. Genetic shift is much more dramatic, often resulting in a new strain of the virus. This often gives viruses of animal origin the ability to infect humans. Survival is the main goal for organisms large and small. These viruses are doing the same thing, making changes to their DNA so that they can continue to spread and infect hosts.

MHC class II genes and mate choice

You might tell your partner that they smell nice. Perhaps they decided to buy a new cologne or perfume, but did you know smell also plays a role in mating and evolution?

Major Histocompatibility Complex, or MHC genes, are important in initiating the immune response, or our ability to fight infections. Therefore, it is evolutionarily advantageous to mate with those who have different MHC class II proteins.

So, how do we know when someone has different MHC class II proteins than us? Interestingly, these proteins affect body odor. Studies have shown that in some populations, some couples have dissimilar MHC class II proteins. Some studies also show that females prefer the odor of MHC-dissimilar males. While many studies on this topic have mixed results, it’s interesting to think about how smell can influence our actions in ways we may not have been able to imagine!

I hope you enjoyed these bits of biology! Like, comment, and subscribe :)

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MORE biology fun facts here!

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Some patients utilize Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for help with these symptoms. CBT usually works to change thinking patterns, often allowing patients an opportunity to reframe their thinking and use problem-solving skills to cope with difficult situations. In addition, the provider and patient will work together to find a unique strategy in order to look towards the future and develop effective coping situations.

Researchers are beginning to think outside of the box, looking towards other non-pharmacological therapies such as music therapy to help patients with symptoms of anxiety.

So, what is Music Therapy?

Music Therapy (MT) is a nonpharmacological and evidence-based intervention in which music therapist create personalized experiences for each of their patients to help them reach therapeutic goals. Sessions may include singing and improvisation. Such experiences are providing patients with a sense of community, as well as a creative outlet while they are receiving treatments. Further, writing songs about their experiences provides patients with space to process traumatic experiences that they may have difficulty talking about. In addition to these physiological benefits, MT also provides biological benefits, further alleviating anxiety.

We live in a digital age, which providers of MT have been able to take advantage of. MT is becoming increasingly popular and more accessible to patients throughout the US through the use of Telehealth services. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of these resources increased by 8700%. Studies have continued to show that digital delivery of this therapy is just as impactful as in-person sessions.

What’s the biology behind music therapy?

Music stimulates various regions of the brain, allowing for emotional, cognitive, and even physical healing. Complex neural networks become activated while listening to and creating music, fostering a unique experience of emotional processing. Further, music activates the same dopamine-releasing reward systems as activities such as eating. This means the same pathways might be at play while listening to your favorite song and eating your favorite sweet treat. This complex stimulus integrates sensory, movement-based (motor), attentional, emotional, and memory processes, and utilizes a vast network within the brain.

Music therapy isn’t just useful for anxiety; it also helps with emotion, cognition, and motor rehabilitation! Further, it can help treat conditions beyond anxiety, such as Dementia, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disorder (COPD), and others. How cool is it that music, something some of us listen to every day, can help us in so many ways!

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